Research by; Oriyomi Oladehinde misturah
UNIVERSITY OF TIMBUKTU
University of Timbuktu" is a collective term for the teaching community of three mosques in the city of Timbuktu in what is now Mali: the mosques of Sankore, Djinguereber, and Sidi Yahya. It was an organized scholastic community that endured for many centuries during the medieval period. The university contributed to the modern understanding of Islamic and academic studies in West Africa during the medieval period and produced a number of scholars and manuscripts taught under the Maliki school of thought.
The "University of Timbuktu" is used to describe three madrasahs: the Sankore, Djingereber, and Sidi Yahya mosques. The three made up an intellectual and spiritual centre throughout the golden age of Timbuktu.
Sankore Mosque
The Sankoré mosque was originally built in the 14th-15th centuries with the financial backing of a Tuareg woman of the Aghlal tribe. For over five centuries, the Sankore Mosque served as a significant religious and intellectual hub. It was especially prevalent during the Askia dynasty (1493–1591). In 1578 AD, Qadi al-Aqib ibn Mahmud ibn Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit knocked down the sanctuary to have it rebuilt in accordance with the dimensions of the Kaaba of Mecca as well as adding a mihrab
Djinguereber Mosque
The Djinguereber Mosque was initially built when Mansa Musa I returned from a pilgrimage to Mecca, but was reconstructed between 1570 and 1583 by Imam Al-Aqib ibn Mahmud, who was the qadi of Timbuktu. He added the southern portion of the mosque as well as the wall which surrounds the cemetery and situates itself to the west. The Djinguereber Mosque minaret is among the most noticeable landmarks of the Timbuktu landscape with its dominating structure.
Sidi Yahya Mosque
The Sidi Yahya Mosque was named after Sidi Yahya al-Tadallisi, a friend of the ruler Muhammad-n-Allah.The Sidi Yahia Mosque, located to the south of the Sankore Mosque, was erected around 1400 AD by the Sheikh El Moktar Hamalla. It was built with the expectation of a holy man who would emerge some forty years later as Cherif Sidi Yahia, who would then be chosen as the Imam. Much like the other two mosques, Sidi Yahia was also restored by Imam Al Aqib from 1577 to 1588.
Education
In Timbuktu, there were several independent schools, each having its own principal instructor. Students often took several different tutors who all specialized in their respective fields of study, and paid their tutors with money, goods, or services. Instruction usually took place in mosque courtyards or private residences depending on the mosque and teachers' preferences. For example, the Sankoré mosque often held classes within its walls, and many scholars lived, studied, and taught in the Sankore quarter. Scholars in the Djinguereber and Sidi Yahya mosques more often would hold classes privately in their own houses, where their personal libraries could be used to assist the teachers. The city is claimed to have boasted approximately 25,000 students out of a city population of 100,000. Subjects studied in the madrasahs included geography, astronomy, medicine, and even history, despite the fact that history was never part of any teaching curriculum in the Islamic world at the time.
Teaching
Pedagogy in Timbuktu was in line with traditional Islamic teaching methods. The teacher would dictate a lesson and the student was expected to write down said dictation. After revising the written version with the teacher, the student would then be expected to study it. At some points, along with the texts the student wrote, the student would learn from other texts, along with their respective commentaries. This method is still widely used in the Islamic world. Students would write their teacher's dictation in vocalized texts (harakat), which is only seen in the Quran and educational works such as grammars and law. Religious studies were taught in Arabic instead of the indigenous languages spoken in Timbuktu. This hindered the mosques' popularity among people who were outside of the clergy.
Upon completion of studies, a turban was given for the students to wear, along with an ijazah that allowed the students authorization to teach a specific subject or text. Each ijazah's value was dependent of the quality of the teacher who gave it.
Teaching in the Timbuktu mosques declined after it was occupied in 1591 following the Battle of tondibi. Soon after, scholars of Timbuktu emigrated to other learning centers. In 1593, Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur cited "disloyalty" as the reason for arresting, and subsequently killing or exiling, many of Timbuktu's scholars, including Ahmad Baba al Massufi
Curricula
While curricula varied, certain texts were taught throughout every institute. The Quran, Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, and Kitab al-Shifa were core texts for most students. Below them in order of prominence were important works in the Maliki school of thought such as: the fatwas of Ahmed al-Wanashiri, the Risala of Ibn Abi Zayd, and the Mukhtasar of Khalil ibn Ishaq.
Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were written in Timbuktu. In this, a mass trade of books was established and became one of the most profitable industries in the city. The manuscripts were produced in the Arabic script and were primarily written in the Arabic language, but other local languages such as Fulfulde, Songhai, Soninke and Bambara were also featured. This helped form an invaluable record of Islam and history of West Africa.
Tarikh al-Sudan
The Tarikh al-Sudan was a written work created by Abd al-Rahman and completed in 1655. It details the history of the Middle Niger region beginning from the founding of Timbuktu until the invasion and occupation of Ahmed al-Mansur of Morocco. These records were sourced from previous written and oral histories about the same subject. This work is highly credited as being one of the most important primary sources that discusses about the history of the Middle Niger region.
Tarikh al-Fattash
The Ta'rīkh al-Fattāsh is a written work created by Mahmud Kati, but completed in 1665 by his three sons and grandson. It chronicles the history of the Middle Niger region, similar to the Tarikh al-Sudan.[10] The Soninke author of Ta'rikh al-Fattash, Ibn al-Mukhtar, recorded the oral tradition surrounding the origin of the Mali kingdom four hundred years earlier.
In 2013, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) captured northern Mali and destroyed many of the manuscripts in an attempt to implement their jihad against any idea or practice which did not conform to their own vision of a pure Islamic society. However, AQIM had only destroyed a portion of the manuscripts as most of them were taken outside of the city to the capital, Bamako, in an initiative led by Abdel Kader Haidara [fr], the son of a respected Malian scholar, Mohammed 'Mamma' Haidara, who in addition to being a scholar was also the owner of a family library which had a considerable number of manuscripts. Haidara did this with the help of the NGO SAVAMA-DCI (Sauvegarde et Valorisation des Manuscripts pour la Défense de la Culture Islamique), of which Haidara is the Executive President. Haidara worked alongside members of the local community in an effort to remove the manuscripts from areas which were susceptible to AQIM activity.
UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
Historical Outlook of the University of Oxford:
Origins and Early Development (11th–13th Centuries)
The University of Oxford is widely recognized as the oldest university in the English-speaking world, with teaching activity dating back to around 1096. Its origins are somewhat obscure, emerging not through royal decree but from the gradual aggregation of scholars in the town of Oxford, England. The university’s early growth was closely linked to the European medieval intellectual revival, which emphasized learning through cathedral and monastic schools.
A significant turning point came in 1167, when King Henry II forbade English students from attending the University of Paris following tensions with France. This royal prohibition led many scholars to remain in or return to England, concentrating academic activity in Oxford. By the late 12th century, Oxford had developed recognizable features of a university organized teaching, examinations, and the awarding of degrees under the oversight of ecclesiastical authorities.
The 13th century saw Oxford’s formal consolidation as a university community (universitas magistrorum et scholarium a guild of masters and scholars). In 1214, a papal legate issued statutes recognizing Oxford’s independence and granting privileges to scholars, including protection from local civic authorities. Colleges such as University College (1249), Balliol College (1263), and Merton College (1264) were established during this period, providing organized residential and instructional settings for scholars. These early colleges emphasized piety, discipline, and intellectual rigor, laying the foundation for the collegiate system that defines Oxford today.
Scholasticism and the Medieval Intellectual Tradition (13th–15th Centuries)
During the High Middle Ages, Oxford became a vibrant center of Scholasticism, a method of learning based on dialectical reasoning aimed at reconciling faith and reason. Its curriculum followed the classical Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and Quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy), culminating in advanced studies of theology, law, and medicine.
Oxford’s intellectual prominence was enhanced by the presence of leading scholars such as Robert Grosseteste, an early advocate of empirical observation, and Roger Bacon, who emphasized experimental science. These figures contributed to the emerging scientific spirit that would later flourish during the Renaissance.
The university also became a center for theological debate, producing influential thinkers such as John Wycliffe (c.1320–1384), who translated the Bible into English and criticized Church corruption. Wycliffe’s ideas foreshadowed the Protestant Reformation, demonstrating Oxford’s role not merely as a conservator of orthodoxy but as a catalyst for intellectual and religious transformation.
Renaissance and Reformation (15th–17th Centuries)
The Renaissance period brought humanist learning and classical revival to Oxford. Scholars like William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre introduced Greek and Latin humanism, promoting the study of classical texts in their original languages. The university’s engagement with Renaissance thought marked a transition from medieval Scholasticism to broader humanistic inquiry.
The English Reformation in the 16th century deeply affected Oxford. As the Church of England broke from Rome under Henry VIII, the university became both an instrument and a battleground for religious change. Monastic institutions were dissolved, Catholic scholars were persecuted, and Protestant theology was incorporated into the curriculum. During the reign of Mary I (1553–1558), the university saw the infamous Martyrdom of Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, who were executed for their Protestant faith events that underscored the intense religious polarization of the era.
Despite these upheavals, Oxford continued to produce leading theologians, scientists, and statesmen, reinforcing its status as England’s premier institution of higher learning.
The Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution (17th–18th Centuries)
The 17th century marked Oxford’s entry into the Scientific Revolution. The university became home to figures like Robert Boyle, a founder of modern chemistry, and Edmund Halley, the astronomer who predicted the return of Halley’s Comet. Oxford scholars played key roles in establishing the Royal Society (1660), an institution dedicated to empirical research and the advancement of scientific knowledge.
During the Enlightenment, Oxford’s intellectual climate was somewhat conservative compared to new centers of secular learning emerging in Europe. However, it maintained its prestige through theological scholarship, natural philosophy, and classical education. The 18th century also saw growing connections between Oxford and the British Empire, as many of its graduates assumed administrative and ecclesiastical positions across Britain’s colonies.
Victorian Era and Modernization (19th Century)
The 19th century brought sweeping reforms to Oxford. Once dominated by religious orthodoxy, the university underwent liberalization following the Oxford University Act of 1854, which opened fellowships and degrees to non-Anglicans. This democratization expanded intellectual diversity and access.
The rise of the Oxford Movement in the 1830s led by figures such as John Henry Newman sought to revive traditional Catholic practices within Anglicanism, blending theology with social and moral reform. At the same time, scientific inquiry, literary scholarship, and historical studies flourished. Oxford became an epicenter for both faith-based and secular education, producing thinkers like Charles Dodgson (Lewis Carroll), Walter Pater, and Benjamin Jowett.
By the end of the century, the university had transformed into a modern institution balancing tradition with innovation, responding to the challenges of industrialization and empire.
20th Century to the Present: Global Prestige and Transformation
In the 20th century, Oxford evolved into a leading global university, attracting students from across the world. The two world wars profoundly affected the institution many students and faculty enlisted, and the university contributed to wartime research in science and intelligence. After 1945, Oxford expanded its academic departments, increased the presence of women (who were officially admitted as full members in 1920), and strengthened its international collaborations.
Oxford’s colleges diversified socially and culturally, reflecting broader global changes. The university became a center of postcolonial, philosophical, and scientific innovation. Figures such as Isaiah Berlin, J.R.R. Tolkien, and Stephen Hawking exemplified Oxford’s intellectual breadth across the humanities and sciences.
Today, Oxford continues to rank among the world’s top universities. It embodies nearly a millennium of educational tradition, balancing ancient collegiate customs with cutting-edge research. Its historical trajectory,from a medieval clerical guild to a cosmopolitan center of global scholarship, encapsulates the broader evolution of Western higher education itself.
CONCLUSION
The University of Timbuktu, represented by the Sankoré Madrasah, and the University of Oxford are historically significant learning centers with distinct structures and focuses. Timbuktu's model was a decentralized collection of mosques and independent scholars teaching Islamic law, science, and astronomy, whereas Oxford evolved into a more structured, centralized institution with a Western-style curriculum. Both were centers of their respective worlds, Timbuktu during Mali's imperial golden age and Oxford as Europe's scholarly heart during the Middle Ages. They demonstrate how different civilizations developed advanced systems of learning rooted in their religious and cultural contexts. Oxford institutionalized learning within a formal university structure under Church and royal charters, while Timbuktu's system was decentralized yet highly disciplined, sustained by scholarly networks and manuscript culture. Each reflected a distinct epistemology - rational-theological in Oxford and spiritual-jurisprudential in Timbuktu - yet both shared the universal pursuit of knowledge, moral education, and societal betterment, showcasing the diverse ways human societies have organized and transmitted knowledge across generations.
