The Middle East is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq.The term 'middle east' came into be due to the widespread usage by western european nations in the early 20th century, to replace the former name 'near east'.
The countries in the Middle East include Bahrain, cyprus, Egypt, iran, iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Middle Eastern countries (13 out of 18) are part of the Arab world. The most populous countries in the region are Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, while Saudi Arabia is the largest Middle Eastern country by area. The history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, and it was long considered the "cradle of civilization". The geopolitical importance of the region has been recognized and competed for during millennia.
The modern Middle East began after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with the Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies and partitioned into a number of separate nations, initially under British and French Mandates. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notably Britain and France by the end of the 1960s.
In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks of crude oil gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates having large quantities of oil. Estimated oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartel OPEC is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.
The Middle East has been the most volatile part of the world since the mid-20th century, with multiple conflicts among disparate rivals. Some erupted over domestic disputes, others over regional competition, with spillover drawing in major world powers. Israel fought four major wars with Arab neighbors, including Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, between 1948 and 1973. But since the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization in the mid-1960s, it has increasingly faced challenges from militias or non-state actors, eventually also including Hezbollah in Lebanon, Hamas in the Palestinian territories, and the Houthis in Yemen. The militias became major military players in the 1980s and then evolved into influential political parties in the 1990s and 2000s. In the 21st century, they have been the most consistent threat to Israel.
The conflicts in the middles East
● Israeli-Palestinian Conflict (1948–Present)—
The conflict between Israel and the Palestinian people is one of the longest-running and most violent disputes in the world. Its origins go back more than a century.
The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is a military and political conflict about land and self-determination within the territory of the former Mandatory Palestine. Key aspects of the conflict include the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the status of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements, borders, security, water rights, the permit regime, Palestinian freedom of movement, and the Palestinian right of return.
The roots of this war can be traced back to the late 19th century with the rise of both Zionism, a Jewish nationalist movement advocating for a homeland in Palestine, and Arab nationalism, which opposed Jewish immigration and sought independence from foreign rule. Under the British Mandate (1917-1948), tensions between Jews and Arabs escalated due to increasing Jewish immigration and land purchases.
During the ensuing 1948 Palestine war, more than half of the mandate's predominantly Palestinian Arab population fled or were expelled by Israeli forces. By the end of the war, Israel was established on most of the former mandate's territory, and the Gaza Strip and the West Bank were controlled by Egypt and Jordan respectively. Since the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel has been occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, known collectively as the Palestinian territories. Two Palestinian uprisings against Israel and its occupation erupted in 1987- 1993 and 2000-2005, the first and second intifadas(non-violent protests) respectively. Israel's occupation, which is now considered to be the longest military occupation in modern history, has seen it constructing illegal settlements there, creating a system of institutionalized discrimination against Palestinians under its occupation called Israeli apartheid. This discrimination includes Israel's denial of Palestinian refugees from their right of return and right to their lost properties. Israel has also drawn international condemnation for violating the human rights of the Palestinians.
Over the years Israel has launched four protracted military assaults on Gaza: in 2008, 2012, 2014 and 2021. Thousands of Palestinians have been killed, including many children, and tens of thousands of homes, schools and office buildings have been destroyed.
Rebuilding has been next to impossible because the siege prevents construction materials, such as steel and cement, from reaching Gaza. The 2008 assault involved the use of internationally banned weaponry, such as phosphorus gas. In 2014, over a span of 50 days, Israel killed more than 2,100 Palestinians, including 1,462 civilians and close to 500 children. During the assault, called Operation Protective Edge by the Israelis, about 11,000 Palestinians were wounded, 20,000 homes were destroyed and half a million people displaced .
Attempts at peace, such as the Oslo Accords (1993) and Camp David Summit (2000), failed due to unresolved issues like borders, refugees, and the status of Jerusalem. Today, tensions remain high, with Israel expanding settlements in the West Bank and Palestinians living under Israeli occupation or siege in Gaza. While some normalization efforts, like the Abraham Accords, have improved Israel’s relations with Arab states, the core conflict remains unresolved.
●Iran-Iraq War/the first gulf war (1980–1988)—
The Iran-Iraq War began in 1980 when Iraqi President Saddam Hussein launched a surprise attack on Iran, hoping to take advantage of the chaos following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, which had overthrown the Shah and established an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. Saddam aimed to assert Iraq’s dominance in the region and gain control of valuable border territories, particularly the oil-rich Khuzestan province.
The war quickly turned into a brutal conflict, characterized by trench warfare, chemical weapons, and massive casualties. Iran, despite being militarily disadvantaged, used waves of volunteers and ideological fervor to repel the Iraqi forces. The war dragged on for eight years, devastating both countries' economies and leading to around a million deaths. Neither side achieved a decisive victory, and in 1988, a UN-brokered ceasefire brought the war to an end. However, tensions between Iran and Iraq remained high, contributing to future conflicts.
● The gulf war(1990-1991)—
This war followed shortly after the iraq-iran war.
On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by Saddam Hussein, invaded neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied the country within two days. The invasion was primarily over disputes regarding Kuwait's alleged slant drilling in Iraq's Rumaila oil field, as well as to cancel Iraq's large debt to Kuwait from the recently ended Iran-Iraq War. After Iraq briefly occupied Kuwait under a rump puppet government known as the Republic of Kuwait, it split Kuwait's sovereign territory into the Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District in the north, which was absorbed into Iraq's existing Basra Governorate, and the Kuwait Governorate in the south, which became Iraq's 19th governorate.
The invasion of Kuwait was met with immediate international condemnation, including the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 660, which demanded Iraq's immediate withdrawal from Kuwait, and the imposition of comprehensive international sanctions against Iraq with the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 661.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, adopted on 29 November 1990, gave Iraq an ultimatum, expiring on 15 January 1991, to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait, with member-states empowered to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq's compliance. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with aerial and naval bombardment of Iraq on 17 January, which continued for five weeks. As the Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq fired missiles at Israel to provoke an Israeli military response, with the expectation that such a response would lead to the withdrawal of several Muslim-majority countries from the coalition. The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries.
The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN. It has also earned the nickname Video Game War, after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American military aircraft during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has also gained fame for some of the largest tank battles in American military history: the Battle of Medina Ridge, the Battle of Norfolk, and the Battle of 73 Easting.
●Iraq war(2003-2011)—
In 2002 the new U.S. president, George W. Bush, argued that the vulnerability of the United States following the September 11 attacks of 2001, combined with Iraq’s alleged continued possession and manufacture of weapons of mass destruction (an accusation that was later proved wrong) and its support for terrorist groups—which, according to the Bush administration, included al-Qaeda, the perpetrators of the September 11 attacks—made disarming Iraq a renewed priority. UN Security Council Resolution 1441, passed on November 8, 2002, demanded that Iraq readmit inspectors and that it comply with all previous resolutions. Iraq appeared to comply with the resolution, but in early 2003 President Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair declared that Iraq was actually continuing to hinder UN inspections and that it still retained proscribed weapons. Other world leaders, such as French Pres. Jacques Chirac and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, citing what they believed to be increased Iraqi cooperation, sought to extend inspections and give Iraq more time to comply with them. However, on March 17, seeking no further UN resolutions and deeming further diplomatic efforts by the Security Council futile, Bush declared an end to diplomacy and issued an ultimatum to Saddam, giving the Iraqi president 48 hours to leave Iraq. The leaders of France, Germany, Russia, and other countries objected to this buildup toward war.
The war soon descended into chaos, as sectarian violence erupted between Sunni and Shia groups, with Al-Qaeda in Iraq exploiting the instability. US forces faced heavy resistance from insurgents, while Iran-backed militias gained influence. By 2011, after years of conflict and political turmoil, the US withdrew, but Iraq remained fragile. The war indirectly contributed to the rise of ISIS, which later captured large parts of Iraq and Syria.
●Syrian Civil War (2011–Present)
The roots of Syria’s civil war lie in decades of authoritarian rule under the Assad family. Hafez al-Assad, who seized power in 1970, established a highly centralized state controlled by the Ba'ath Party. His rule was marked by repression, economic disparities, and political marginalization of opposition groups. Upon his death in 2000, his son, Bashar al-Assad, assumed power with promises of reform. However, political liberalization was limited, and economic policies disproportionately benefited an elite minority while exacerbating poverty among the broader population.
In 2011, inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings that led to regime changes in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya, Syrians began protesting against government corruption, human rights abuses, and economic hardships. The protests were initially peaceful, but the regime’s heavy-handed response—arbitrary arrests, torture, and military crackdowns—led to widespread discontent. As protests intensified, opposition groups formed armed resistance movements, transforming political unrest into a nationwide rebellion.
Later on the opposition fragmented, with the Free Syrian Army, Islamist groups, and Kurdish militias fighting both Assad’s forces and each other. By 2013, Syria had become a battleground for global and regional powers.
The war evolved into a proxy conflict. Russia and Iran backed Assad, while the U.S., European nations, and Gulf states supported opposition forces. Turkey intervened to curb Kurdish influence. ISIS exploited the chaos, seizing vast territories before being defeated by a U.S.-led coalition in 2019.
Over 500,000 people have died, and more than 13 million have been displaced. The war devastated Syria’s economy and infrastructure, creating a massive refugee crisis. While Assad has reclaimed most of the country, Idlib remains under opposition control, and Kurdish forces in the north face threats from both Turkey and the Syrian government.
●Yemen civil war(2014-present)—
The conflict in Yemen, which began in 2014, has seen clashes between Iran-backed Houthi rebels and the Saudi-led coalition supporting Yemen’s internationally recognized government. Though large-scale fighting has declined, Houthis continue attacking ships in the Red Sea in response to Israel’s war on Hamas. Talks between Saudi Arabia and the Houthis, as well as Iranian-Saudi normalization, have raised hopes for peace, but progress remains slow. Meanwhile, the Southern Transitional Council (STC) seeks an independent southern Yemen, and al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) remains active. The humanitarian crisis persists, with 21.6 million Yemenis needing aid.
The war began when Houthis, with ties to Iran, seized the capital, Sanaa, in 2014, demanding government reforms. By early 2015, the rebels took control of the presidential palace, forcing President Hadi into exile. Saudi Arabia launched airstrikes in March 2015, aiming to restore Hadi’s government, with U.S. logistical and intelligence support. The war soon became a regional proxy conflict, with Iran supporting the Houthis and the Saudi-led coalition imposing a blockade, worsening Yemen’s humanitarian crisis.
Houthis initially made rapid gains but were pushed back by Saudi intervention. A 2018 ceasefire in Hodeidah prevented further fighting at the strategic port, but clashes continued elsewhere. In 2021, Houthis launched attacks on Saudi infrastructure, prompting retaliatory airstrikes. In 2022, President Hadi resigned, and a new presidential council was formed. While diplomatic efforts continue, the Houthis remain in control of northern Yemen.
The war has led to over 377,000 deaths, mostly from hunger and lack of medical care. The economy has collapsed, with Yemen’s currency depreciating sharply. Two-thirds of Yemenis require aid, with 5 million at risk of famine. Disease outbreaks, including cholera, have worsened conditions.
The U.S. has conducted airstrikes against AQAP since 2002. In 2021, President Biden ended U.S. support for Saudi-led offensive operations but continued counterterrorism efforts. In 2024, the U.S. redesignated the Houthis as a terrorist organization due to their Red Sea attacks.
Despite peace talks, Yemen remains divided, with ongoing security threats, economic struggles, and a worsening humanitarian situation.
Historically, many of these conflicts trace their roots back to colonial-era decisions and external interventions that created artificial borders and fueled divisions. For example the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supported the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, created a long-term point of contention between Arabs and Jews, leading to the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
During the Cold War, the Middle East became a proxy battleground for the United States and the Soviet Union, with each superpower supporting different factions to expand its influence. Countries like Egypt, Syria, and Iraq leaned toward Soviet-style governance, while nations like Saudi Arabia and pre-revolutionary Iran aligned with the West.
In today's world, geopolitical rivalries continue to define Middle Eastern conflicts. Iran and Saudi Arabia, as the two dominant regional powers, have engaged in indirect confrontations across multiple fronts, including Yemen, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon. Their rivalry, deeply rooted in religious and political differences, has manifested in proxy wars that have prolonged violence and instability.
Looking ahead, the future of Middle Eastern conflicts remains uncertain. Diplomatic efforts, such as the Abraham Accords and China’s mediation between Iran and Saudi Arabia, indicate that some governments are seeking to de-escalate tensions. However, unresolved issues, including the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, ongoing civil wars in Syria and Yemen, and the fragility of states like Lebanon and Iraq, suggest that instability will persist. Additionally, the rise of non-state actors, including militias, terrorist organizations, and cyber warfare groups, challenges traditional notions of conflict resolution, making peace negotiations even more complex.
If the factors and issues leading to conflicts and disagreement are checked, a realistic solution can be crafted which can lead to long lasting stability in the middle east and its neighboring countries.
Sources:
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/explainer-roots-and-realities-10-conflicts-middle-east
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eashttps://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/geography/superpowers-of-the-world/conflicts-in-the-middle-east/
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/9/whats-the-israel-palestine-conflict-about-a-simple-guide
https://www.britannica.com/event/Iran-Iraq-War
"The Middle East: A History" by William Cleveland, "Black Wave" by Kim Ghattas.
